Research

Our guides aren’t dreamed up overnight. Every activity is rooted in extensive, peer-reviewed research across child development, cognitive science and educational psychology.

We set out to make sure that the activities we suggest aren’t just fun in the moment, but also powerful in shaping the skills that matter most. Skills like problem solving, creativity, empathy and adaptability - the very foundations that will enable our children to make best use of AI. The stakes are high, and play is one of the most effective ways to prepare.

To keep our guide easy to use, we don’t fill the margins with academic citations. Instead, we publish the full list of references here, fully cited and numbered according to where they apply in the activities. If you’re curious, explore the research behind each activity and see exactly how it informs the skill development.

Activity Guide: Build Early Skills to Thrive with AI

0.    Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268.

1.    Jirout, J. J., & Klahr, D. (2012). Children's scientific curiosity: In search of an operational definition of an elusive concept. Developmental Review, 32(2), 125–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2012.04.002

2.    Furtak, E. M., Seidel, T., Iverson, H., & Briggs, D. C. (2012). Experimental and quasi-experimental studies of inquiry-based science teaching: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 82(3), 300–329. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654312457206

3.    Sutcliffe, R., & Bishop, D. V. M. (2005). Psychophysical design influences frequency discrimination performance in young children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 91(3), 249–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2005.03.006

4.    Russ, S. W., & Wallace, C. E. (2013). Pretend play and creative processes. American Journal of Play, 6(1), 136–148.

5.    Rittle-Johnson, B., Fyfe, E. R., Loehr, A. M., & Miller, M. R. (2015). Beyond numeracy in preschool: Adding patterns to the equation. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 31, 101–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2015.01.005

6.    Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2009). Learning and teaching early math: The learning trajectories approach. Routledge.

7.    Gelman, S. A., & Meyer, M. (2011). Child categorization. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 2(1), 95–105. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.96

8.    Paris, A. H., & Paris, S. G. (2003). Assessing narrative comprehension in young children. Reading Research Quarterly, 38(1), 36–76.

9.    Guilford, J. P. (1967). The nature of human intelligence. McGraw-Hill.

10.    Ward, T. B. (1994). Structured imagination: The role of conceptual structure in exemplar generation. Cognitive Psychology, 27(1), 1–40. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1994.1010

11.    Shams, L., & Seitz, A. R. (2008). Benefits of multisensory learning. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12(11), 411–417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2008.07.006

12.    Scott, C. L. (1999). The enduring appeal of creative play. Creativity Research Journal, 12(4), 329–344. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326934crj1204_10

13.    Denham, S. A. (1998). Emotional development in young children. Guilford Press.

14.    Goldstein, T. R., & Winner, E. (2012). Enhancing empathy and theory of mind. Journal of Cognition and Development, 13(1), 19–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2011.573514

15.    Nicolopoulou, A. (1997). Worldmaking and identity formation in children’s narrative play-acting. Narrative Inquiry, 7(2), 221–256.

16.    Eisenberg, N., & Fabes, R. A. (1998). Prosocial development. In Handbook of Child Psychology (pp. 701–778). Wiley.

17.    Hmelo-Silver, C. E., Duncan, R. G., & Chinn, C. A. (2007). Scaffolding and achievement in problem-based and inquiry learning. Educational Psychologist, 42(2), 99–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520701263368

18.    Cheng, V. M. Y. (2010). Teaching creative thinking in regular science lessons. Innovation in Education and Teaching International, 47(3), 263–274. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2010.498184

19.    Casey, B., Andrews, N., Schindler, H., Kersh, J. E., Samper, A., & Copley, J. (2008). The development of spatial skills through interventions involving block building. Cognition and Instruction, 26(3), 269–309. https://doi.org/10.1080/07370000802177177

20.    Zimmerman, C., & Klahr, D. (2018). Reasoning and science learning: Theory and practice. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 55(7), 977–981. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21493

21.    Miller, S. A., & Byrnes, J. P. (2001). To achieve or not to achieve. Educational Psychologist, 36(4), 199–216. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3604_2

22.    Byrnes, J. P. (1998). The nature and development of decision-making: A self-regulation model. Erlbaum.

23.    Nicolopoulou, A., Cortina, K. S., Ilgaz, H., Cates, C. B., & de Sá, A. B. (2015). Using narrative interventions to support early literacy development. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 31, 45–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.12.004

24.    Zimmerman, B. J. (2002). Becoming a self-regulated learner. Theory Into Practice, 41(2), 64–70. https://doi.org/10.1207/154304502753458703

25.    Want, S. C., & Harris, P. L. (2002). How do children ape? Developmental Psychology, 38(5), 706–718. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.38.5.706

26.    Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Random House.

27.    Bonawitz, E., Shafto, P., Gweon, H., et al. (2011). The double-edged sword of pedagogy. Cognition, 120(3), 322–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2010.10.001

28.    Fiorella, L., & Mayer, R. E. (2013). The relative benefits of learning by teaching. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 38(4), 281–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2013.06.001

29.    Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4–12 years old. Science, 333(6045), 959–964. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1204529

30.    Best, J. R., & Miller, P. H. (2010). A developmental perspective on executive function. Child Development, 81(6), 1641–1660. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01499.x

31.    Ryokai, K., Vaucelle, C., & Cassell, J. (2003). Virtual peers as partners in storytelling. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19(2), 195–208. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0266-4909.2003.00020.x

32.    Sainburg, R. L., & Wang, J. (2002). Interlimb transfer of visuomotor rotations. Motor Control, 6(2), 173–196. https://doi.org/10.1123/mcj.6.2.173

33.    Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95(2), 256–273. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.95.2.256

34.    Verdine, B. N., Golinkoff, R. M., Hirsh-Pasek, K., & Newcombe, N. S. (2014). Finding the missing piece: Puzzles as a learning tool. Developmental Psychology, 50(6), 1956–1971. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036983

35.    Yeager, D. S., & Dweck, C. S. (2012). Mindsets that promote resilience. Educational Psychologist, 47(4), 302–314. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2012.722805

36.    Wardle, J., Herrera, M. L., Cooke, L., & Gibson, E. L. (2003). Modifying children’s food preferences. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 57(2), 341–348. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601541

37.    Montessori, M. (1967). The absorbent mind. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

38.    Plowman, L., McPake, J., & Stephen, C. (2010). The technologisation of childhood? Children & Society, 24(1), 63–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1099-0860.2008.00222.x

39.    Fivush, R., Haden, C. A., & Reese, E. (2006). Elaborating on elaborations. Child Development, 77(6), 1568–1588. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00961.x

40.    Martinez, S. L., & Stager, G. S. (2013). Invent to learn: Making, tinkering, and engineering in the classroom. Constructing Modern Knowledge Press.

41.    Wright, S. (2010). Understanding creativity in early childhood. SAGE.

42.    Nicolopoulou, A. (1997). Worldmaking and identity formation in children’s narrative play-acting. Narrative Inquiry, 7(2), 221–256.

43.    Cox, M. (2005). The pictorial world of the child. Cambridge University Press.

44.    Harris, P. L. (2000). The work of the imagination. Wiley-Blackwell.

45.    McGuire, M. (2011). Play-based learning. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 36(3), 30–37.

46.    Gelman, S. A., & Brenneman, K. (2004). Science learning pathways for young children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 19(1), 150–158.

47.    Izard, C. E. (2001). Emotional intelligence and emotional competence. Handbook of Emotions, 2, 226–235.

48.    Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168.

49.    Garris, R., Ahlers, R., & Driskell, J. E. (2002). Games, motivation, and learning. Simulation & Gaming, 33(4), 441–467.

50.    Best, J. R., & Miller, P. H. (2010). A developmental perspective on executive function. Child Development, 81(6), 1641–1660.

51.    Rogoff, B. (2003). The cultural nature of human development. Oxford University Press.

52.    Suddendorf, T., & Corballis, M. C. (2007). The evolution of foresight. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 30(3), 299–313.